5–2 μg/mL or ∼4–5 μM ( Calverley et al., 1983). This is similar to rats (Galleon Pharmaceuticals, unpublished data) and is

likely conserved across species. The major metabolite, keto-doxapram, is also a ventilatory Dabrafenib order stimulant albeit with lower potency than the parent compound ( Bairam et al., 1990). Many classes of drugs administered in the perio-operative setting elicit alveolar hypoventilation. Doxapram can normalize ventilation by increasing ventilatory drive (i.e., a left shift in the CO2 response curve) (Ramamurthy et al., 1975 and Randall et al., 1989), and increasing CO2 (i.e., increased slope of the CO2 response curve) and hypoxic (Lugliani et al., 1979) chemosensitivity. As long as a patient can respond to chemoreceptor stimulation, doxapram should be able to increase V˙E in the presence of most drugs. Situations where a patient may not respond include severe CNS depression (e.g., due to prolonged hypoxia, major drug overdose, or brainstem injury), or an inability to increase activity of the respiratory muscles (e.g., in the presence of muscle relaxants or neuromuscular disorders). The class of drug most often associated with acute life-threatening respiratory depression is the opioids. Doxapram diminishes the magnitude of opioid-induced hypoventilation across a range of species (Franko and Ward, 1971, Gasser,

1977, Golder et Staurosporine in vitro al., 2012c, Gregoretti and Pleuvry, 1977, Hillidge, 1976, Khanna and Pleuvry, 1978 and Ramamurthy et al., 1975) (Fig. 1). Naloxone, a selective opioid receptor antagonist, reverses opioid-induced respiratory depression but also removes analgesia which creates a clinical problem post-operatively. Doxapram does not interact with opioid receptors and so analgesia is maintained. Opioids and other respiratory depressants exacerbate preexisting SDB in the perio-operative selleck chemicals period (Vasu et al., 2012). The effect of doxapram on the severity of obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) has been evaluated in a small study using four subjects (Suratt et al., 1986). Doxapram decreased the duration

and severity of oxyhemoglobin desaturation events, with no effect on the number of desaturations or time spent in NREM and REM sleep. Unfortunately, doxapram also increased blood pressure, which is undesirable in people with a disease known to cause hypertension. Although the small sample size diminishes the findings of this study, the data suggest that increasing respiratory drive chemically, presumably via peripheral chemoreceptors, is a rational approach to treating sleep disordered breathing (SDB) in the perio-operative setting. Nowadays, the primary limitation to more widespread use of doxapram is its analeptic effect. Previously, this property was desirable and used to hasten recovery from anesthesia. With use of shorter-acting anesthetic agents, the need for stimulants has diminished and the analeptic properties of doxapram are more evident.